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We employed the representative natiional samples of 2008 of wave of European Values Study. We hypothesized that levels of socioeconomic development and communist past would prove to be the strongest macropredictors of levels of protest participation (Inglehart and Welzel, 2007), and that prodemocratic orientations positively affect protest participation, even when controlling for other individual and state characteristics. Using multilevel modelling allowed us to examine simultaneously the effect of individual-level as well as group-level predictors of protest participation (signing petitions, joining in boycotts, and attending lawful demonstrations). We investigated associations between macro-level country characteristics and single-level sociodemographic and political cultural variables (prodemocratic attitudes index used by Klingemann et al., 2006). In addition, the majority of studies employed single-level analyses, not taking into account country-level characteristics, or vice versa. Many researchers argue that protest participation is crucial for consolidation and functioning of democracies, and past studies have shown that at the individual leve protest participation is associated with prodemocratic attitudes, though past research has rarely compared motivations behind protest participation in established and postcommunist European democracies.

In recent decades protest participation has become one of the most widely accepted and practiced forms of citizen engagement in democratic countries.

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